Annabelle

Annabelle

India`s Geography
India is a country in Asia. The Indian Subcontinent is the land south of the Himalayas. Long ago, the Indian Subcontinent was connected to Africa, but over time it broke away. Then, it collided with Asia, creating the Himalayas. The Himalayan mountain range is very important to India`s geography and climate. The mountains help to regulate the climate of India. They block the cold air from the north and draw moisture out of the summer winds. The moisture drawn out of the winds falls as snow on the mountains. When the snow melts, it brings down good soil to the flood plains below. The flood plains are flat lands that are usually near rivers. They are great for farming because of the good soil. During the wet season, many heavy rains pour onto India.The southwest monsoon blows over the Indian Ocean, picking up a lot of moisture. It then brings the rain to the western coast and northern plains. The climate in India is mostly subtropical and tropical wet. The humid land usually reaches around 80 degrees in the day, but it can get hotter in May, the hottest month. Even though most of the land is very humid, it gets a little colder in the north, especially towards Afghanistan and Pakistan, where they have arid and semiarid climates.

The Harrapans
The Indus River Valley was the area around the Indus River in present day Pakistan. The Harappans were the earliest to settle there from 2600 B.C. to 1900 B.C. The Harappans built clay-walled cities that were very advanced. In fact, the Indus River Valley civilization had very advanced technology such as irrigation systems, boats and carts for trade, sewage systems, and precise measuring and weighing equipment. They were farmers, traders, and craftspeople. The Harappan civilization ended because of environmental reasons. One was that the Saraswati River dried up and the Indus River changed course, causing floods. Also, the Harappan people used up the forests for fuel for their ovens. Before their civilization ended though, the Harappans traded with Persia, China, and Mesopotamia. They traded grain, copper pots, mirrors, elephant ivory, cloth, lapis lazuli, ceramic jewelery, gold and dried fish. Not only did the Harappans trade goods, but they traded ideas too. They learned new skills, like how to make a plow and grow rice. They learned this from China and rice became their new main crop. The Aryans were nomads who came to the Indus River Valley and intermixed with the Harappans. When they came, some settled in the Indus River Valley, while others moved east to the Ganges River Valley. At the Ganges, they cleared the thick jungles to create room for farming. The Aryan people had books of religious poems and hymns that were the start of Hinduism, they were called Vedas. From 1700 to 500 B.C. was called the Vedic Period in honor of these books. At the end of the Vedic Period, India was divided in sixteen states. Chandragupta Maurya was a bold leader who conquered the states and unified India. After Chandragupta`s death followed a time of peace. His grandson Askoka believed greatly in Buddhism and nonviolence.

The Aryans
The Aryans lived in groups of several families called ganas, each gana had it's own territory. Rajas were the warrior chiefs that ruled the ganas. The houses of the ganas were usually only one room made of wood and straw, the rulers and nobles had larger houses. Most Aryan houses had a yagna, or a central hearth. The yagna's fire was important to keep going because fire was considered a gift from the fire god. Also, the yagnas were where families gathered to eat fruit, vegetables, wheat, barley, rice, beef and mutton. The caste system was also very important to the Aryan's culture. The caste system was a system of social levels that you were born into and you could not move up or down. It consisted of five levels. The highest level were called the brahmans, they were the priests. The next level was the kshatriayas who were the warriors and rulers. Farmers were part of the vaisyas caste. The servants were the sundras and the lowest level was the dasas who were also called the untouchables. All of the Aryans had to work in their caste and eat with members of their caste. The vedas were collections of religious poems and hymns. There are four vedas, the rig-veda, the sama-veda, the yajur-veda, and the atharva-veda. The rig-veda has 1,000 hymns dedicated to 33 gods. The sama-veda is a large collection of chants. The yajur-veda is about the wisdom of sacrifices. The atharva-veda is the wisdom of the Atharvans (the Atharvans were Brahmins). The puranas are similar to the vedas, they had five main sections, history, cosmology (illustrations of philosophy), secondary creation, genealogy of kings, and Manvantaras (the period of Mana`s rule). The puranas were meant for ordinary people and were less elaborate than the vedas. There were 18 puranas.

Hindu Festivals
There are many Hindu festivals celebrating different things. Some are Hanuman Jayanti, Vasant Panchami, and Ram Navami. Hanuman Jayanti celebrates the birthday of Hanuman. Vasant Panchami celebrates the coming of Spring. Ram Navami celebrates the incarnation of Sri Ram. These are just three of the many Hindu festivals.

Clothing
Most Harappan people wore cotton clothing, but the rich could afford to wear silk clothing. During the Aryan period, women wore saris and men wore dhotis. Saris were pieces of cloth that were 5 to 9 yards long and could be wrapped around like a dress. Dhotis were also long pieces of cloth that men wore as pants.

Invaders of India
The Aryans were the first invaders to come to India. They introduced sanskrit and the caste system. Next came the Persians in 500 B.C. The Persians did not have a great of an influence on India as the Aryans because they were soon conquered by the Greeks. The Greeks came in 327 B.C. and they were led by Alexander the Great. He wanted to conquer land further east, but his troops did not. Alexander went back to Greece, and left men to look after his trade routes. Then, Chandragupta Maurya conquered the Indus River Valley and his descendants continued to rule in what was called the Mauryan Empire. After the Mauryan Empire was the Gupta Empire. Chandra Gupta`s empire was the Gupta empire (Chandra Gupta was not related to Chandragupta Maurya). The Arabs then conquered India, bringing the religion of Islam. Last, but not least, were the British, who came in 1858. The Indians struggled for independence from the British rule and Ghandi, and non-violent leader, helped tremendously in bringing about the freedom of India in 1947.

India`s Government
India`s main leader was the king. However, the king had to consult with the Council of Ministers before making any big decisions. The Council of Ministers were some of the most powerful government officials. The members of the royal family were also powerful because they ruled the provinces. The provinces were divided into districts and the Provincial Governor and Council of Prominent Residents would select deputies to govern them. Cities and towns in the districts were administered by chiefs and councils. The officials would collect taxes, supervise maintenance, count the population, manage businesses, keep an eye on private enterprises and measure the land. Magistrates from the Brahman or Kshatriya castes would judge legal cases and the penalty was usually a fine. Spies would look into what was going on and secretly report back to the king.

Ranks in War
The ranks in the Indian army were elephants, cavalry, chariots, and infantry. The elephants were at the front and plowed through enemy lines. Each elephant had a driver and two warriors. The cavalry had horses that were used for surprise attacks. An Indian tradition was to give the horses wine before battle. The chariots were meant to be small and light, but over time, chariots became more bulky and harder to maneuver. The infantry soldiers carried swords, spears, bows, and daggers, they were the largest rank.

Indian Instruments and Music
The veena, tabla, sitar, harmonium, and shehnai are all Indian instruments. Shehnai are Indian oboes. They have wooden bodies and brass ends. Shehnai are found in temples and are important instruments in North Indian weddings. The harmonium is similar to the piano, it has a keyboard, but it is portable and can be played on the floor. The harmonium is found in folk music, Bhajan and Ghazal (Bhajan and Ghazal are kinds of music). The sitar has been in India for almost 700 years. It`s main parts are a round gourd-like bottom, a stem, and some have 11 or 13 strings. The tabla are two drums. The veena has a hollow bowl like part, a neck, a stem and seven strings.

Cricket
Cricket is a team sport played with a bat and ball. The British brought cricket to India. The game became popular and even Indian royalty played it. After the British left, the game remained popular.

Indian Art
Art was a way for kings and nobles to tell of their great deeds. The Ancient Indians used water colors, charcoal, and vegetable dyes to paint with. Fabric painting was popular and each fabric told a story. The fabrics were used to adorn the walls of homes. Stone and marble statues were also made. Pookalam are traditional Indian flower arrangements.



Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal was built as a monument to Mumtaz Mahal. Mumtaz was the beloved wife of Shah Jahan, the king. When she died, Shah Jahan had it built to remember her. The Taj Mahal is made of white marble that is meant to reflect moonlight or sunlight. The main dome reaches a height of 240 feet and is surrounded by smaller domes.



Important Figures
Mahatma Gandhi believed in peaceful protest. Gandhi helped to free India from the British in a peaceful way. Not only did Gandhi help to free India, he tried to break up the caste system, liberate women, and help farmers and laborers escape poverty. Jawaharlal Nehru was the first prime minister of India. He became prime minister after the British left. Indira Gandhi was Jawaharlal Nehru`s daughter. She was the first women to be prime minister in India, she became prime minister after her father`s death. She was a notable and politically controversial leader, and many people respected her. Sadly, she was murdered by her own bodyguards.



Education in Modern India
Math in India started when a book called the Vedang Jyotish talked about Ganit (mathematics). Also, in 497 A.D. a mathematician called Aryabhata developed the decimal system. In India, about 75% of men can read and only about 45% of women can read. In some places, girls are even banned from school. Some schools in India start at 8:00 and go until 1:50. In Indian schools, the students study some of the same things as in the U.S., such as science, math, social studies, and English. However, in the morning students do judo and yoga before they start their classes.

Pollution in India
The pollution of the Ganges River in India is bad for the people of India because they now face many water-born diseases. Factories dump wastes into it and people still bath, drink and wash clothing in the Ganges. Due to pollution from factories, vehicles, and the burning of wood (to make land for farming) air pollution in India is also very bad. The pollution in South Asia is called the Asian Brown Cloud. The brown cloud reflects the sunlight and this causes the snow on the Himalayas to melt. This could cause the climate to change and affect the monsoon. The monsoon in India causes 80% of their rainfall.

Sports
Cricket, soccer, golf, kabaddi, kho-kho and field hockey are popular sports in India. Many Indians are passionate about cricket. It was brought over by the British and remains popular. In fact, in 1932, 1983, and 2011 they were the cricket world champions. The Indians also did very well in the Olympics for field hockey. They have won six gold medals between 1928 and 1956 they have also won in 1964 and 1980. Kabaddi is an Indian team sport that combines rugby and wrestling. Kho-kho is another traditional Indian sport that is similar to tag.



Voting System in India
India has a secular democracy which means that politics and government are separated. The federal government controls parts of taxation, foreign policy, and defense, While the states control the local government and health. Voting in India is different from in the U.S. because each person`s vote counts, while in the U.S., it is by state. The Indian voters first vote for the House of People, then they vote for the prime minister. Since India has both a prime minister and a president, both must be elected. The Indian voters elect a State Assembly, who elect the Council of States, who elect the president, the House of People also vote for the president. The current president in India is Pranab Mukherjee, the vice president is Mohammad Hamid Ansari, the prime minister is Monmohan Singh. The national security adviser is Shiveshankar Menon, and the Department Chairmen Planning Commission is Montek Singh Ahluwalia.

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The Fertile Crescent
Some of the first civilizations started in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia is made mostly from the land between two rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates. The two rivers made the land around them fertile, that is why Mesopotamia is also called the Fertile Crescent. The fertile land, drinking water, and transportation provided by these rivers allowed many civilizations to grow in Mesopotamia. Some of these civilizations were the Sumerians, the Babylonians, and the Hebrews. These groups of people usually went through five steps to become a prosperous civilization. The first step was learning to grow crops and train wild animals. When people learned how to grow crops, they had a good food source. The taming of wild animals helped them to grow their crops. The second step was building homes that they could live in for a while. Before, people had to move very often to hunt animals, they had to live in tents or caves. With the crops and trained animals, people could build permanent homes. When more and more people started doing this, towns started to grow. The third step was when people started to make tools that could help them with their jobs. With more technological advances, people could do their jobs quickly and more efficiently. The fourth step was educational achievements such as writing, calendars, and stories. With these, people could keep trace of time, communicate more efficiently, and keep records of their history. The final step was the creation of rules. Rules and laws allowed cities and towns to live together in peace. Sumer was the first large civilization in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians lived in walled cities. In the center of every city was a ziggurat, or a temple. At the ziggurats, people would pray to a god or gods for good crops. Sumer had some important technological advances that allowed it to be a successful civilization. The first of their major inventions was cuneiform. Cuneiform was the Sumerians' written language. Cuneiform allowed the Sumerians to keep records of purchases, lists, and history. The invention of irrigation also helped the Sumerians. Irrigation allowed them to bring water from the rivers to the fields through ditches. More groups of people started to come to Mesopotamia, one of which was the Babylonians. The Babylonians conquered the Sumerians. The Babylonians built a city in Mesopotamia called Babylon. They were ruled by a king named Hammurabi, who helped them conquer the Sumerians. The Babylonians also had farms, ziggurats, and wrote in cuneiform. Hammurabi made a set of laws that were about strong people helping the weak people. He found laws all over Mesopotamia and kept the ones that were the most fair. Legend says that one king, King Nebuchadnezzar, built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon for his homesick wife. The gardens were believed to be 320 feet high levels that were covered in beautiful flowers and plants. The Hebrews were another group of people who once lived in Mesopotamia. A leader named Abraham led the Hebrews to the land of Canaan. The Hebrews did well in Canaan until a drought killed their crops, this forced them to leave. The Hebrews went to Egypt, but they were turned into slaves by the Egyptians. After some time, another Hebrew leader named Moses led the Hebrews back to Canaan. The trip from Egypt back to Canaan was called the Exodus. The Hebrew religion is now called Judaism. According to Judaism, God told Moses to bring the Hebrews back to Canaan. Many religions believe that God gave Moses the Ten Commandments. The Ten Commandments were the most important laws that the Hebrews followed during the Exodus. Theses laws are about honoring your elders, loving one another, and not stealing, cheating, lying, or killing.They are similar to the laws we have today.

The Middle Ages
The Roman Empire was a strong civilization, but it could not last forever. The empire began to grow weak, emperors were dishonest, warriors attacked and eventually took over Rome. After the fall of Rome, many warriors fought for land, trade started to disappear, crops were destroyed by robbers, and the traces of the great civilization of Rome began to fade away. During this time of confusion, a government system called feudalism was developed. Feudalism was when the strong, powerful people protected the weak in exchange for taxes and rent. Vassals were the people who fought for the people higher up than them. The king was the highest in the feudal system, he gave some of his land to the nobles. The nobles were from the upper class who were vassals to the king. There were also lower class nobles who were vassals to the upper class nobles. The men who fought for their nobles were warriors called knights. The lowest level of the feudal system was the serfs. The serfs were people who lived on the noble`s land and farmed it. They had to pay rent and taxes, but the nobles protected them. The serfs lived in huts made of mud and sticks, they also had to do many jobs for the nobles. Some of the jobs they had to do were cooking, cleaning, cutting wood, and farming.The nobles had manors made of the noble`s house, a village, a church, a mill, a field, and sometimes woods. The people who lived on the manor had to live independently because there was very little trade. Everybody had to grow their own food, make their own clothes, and make their own houses. During the middle ages, education started to die out. If it were not for the Roman Catholic Church, nobody would have learned Latin from the Romans. The Christian priests learned to read and write and the nuns and monks hand wrote books. They would also teach some kings, queens, and lucky nobles how to read and write. The churches also helped to keep art alive by making beautiful cathedrals. Artists made scenes from the Bible on the colored glass windows and carved decorations into the wood and stone in the cathedrals. The serfs would help build these while the nobles funded it. The games of the Middle Ages were similar to those from the Roman Empire. Instead of gladiatorial games, men fought bulls and bears. Horse racing, chariot racing, and medieval tournaments were also practiced. During the tournaments, armored knights would fight, sometimes on horseback. Jerusalem was a holy city where Jesus had lived, the Christians traveled there because it had such great spiritual meaning to them. This was important because people rarely traveled during the Middle Ages. Jerusalem was ruled by the Muslims who believed in the religion of Islam. Soon, the Muslims did not want the Christians to visit Jerusalem. The pope (leader of the Roman Catholic Church) told the Christians to fight for freedom of Jerusalem. The Christians then went on a series of Crusades, or battles to win back Jerusalem. They eventually won it back, but the Muslims took it over again about 100 years later. The Crusades were the first real journeys during the Middle Ages. The Christians brought back ideas and goods that they had never seen before. Soon, trade started up again. Roads and trade routes were rebuilt and people began to form guilds. Guilds were groups of people who all had the same jobs. There were guilds for bakers, weavers, shoemakers, and even more jobs. The people started becoming interested in their past and the world around them.

Early Modern Europe
The Renaissance period was a time of rebirth, looking back in history, and continuing trade, education, and art. Many people looked back at the advanced ideas of the Greeks and Romans and developed new ideas. Artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Petrach painted great works of art like the Mona Lisa (by Leonardo da Vinci) and The Pieta (by Michelangelo). People also started rethinking the ideas of the Roman Catholic Church. Martin Luther was a monk who became mad at the pope because he was allowing people to pay the church to have their mistakes forgiven. Martin Luther was made to leave the church when he nailed a list of his beliefs on the door of the cathedral. However, because of the invention of the printing press, Luther`s ideas spread and people agreed with him. Luther`s followers were called protestants because they protested against the Roman Catholic Church. Changes were made to the church in 1545 and Martin Luther`s movements were called the Reformation. During this time of new thinking, feudalism became weak and kings became powerful because of high taxes. People started to think of themselves as a nation and they set up governments. In A.D. 1066, a nobleman named William sailed up the coast of France with his army to conquer the English. He was named King of England and many other strong kings followed after him. A king named Henry the Second set up laws called common law because they applied to everyone. The English people decided that the king should not control everyone, so they made him sign a paper called the Magna Carta that limited the king`s power. This made England a strong nation. Through the 1500s and 1600s, England kept gaining power until it was one of the world`s biggest trading nations. Cloth, or textiles were made by women in their homes and it was a major product of England. A lot of people wanted the cloth, so they created machines that could do the work faster. Some of the machines were called the spinning jenny and steam engine. These helped to expand the cotton industry and the coal mines were also expanded so coal could fuel the machines. People started moving to towns and cities to work in the factories instead of working on farms because many people were needed to operate the machinery. This time period was called the Industrial Revolution. The working conditions in the factories were usually poor. Workers were in a tight, hot space that had fast moving machinery and they worked long hours. Children sometimes worked in the factories because they were small and could move quickly around the machines. Workers started to protest because of the working conditions, so some factories changed their rules. Industries grew because of this revolution and it spread from England to many other countries. The Industrial Revolution was an important time period for many countries. =//**__End of Take-home Quiz__**//=

The Middle East
The Middle East is the land spread between Europe, Asia, and Africa. Today, people in the Middle East live in towns and cities, but long ago they were nomads that roamed the land in search of food and water. Islam is a religion that started in the Middle East, Islam means "surrender to god". The Muslims (people who believe in Islam) believe in one god. Muhammad is the religious leader that established Islam. Muhammad lived in Mecca in the 600s, one day, he heard a voice while praying in a mountain cave. The voice said that there was only one god named Allah, and that Muhammad was Allah`s messenger. Muhammad started to teach the people of Mecca about Islam in 610, he soon gained followers. Muhammad died in 632, but Islam continued to spread. Muslim leaders lead armies that would conquer people and teach them about Islam, the Muslims soon had a large empire. Today, many people still believe in Islam, they follow the Koran, the holy book of Islam, and perform their religious duties. The Five Pillars of Islam are the five rules that the Muslims follow. The first pillar is faith, all Muslims must say that they believe in Allah and Muhammad. The second pillar is prayer, all Muslims must pray five times a day. The third pillar is to give alms, alms are money that the Muslims give to the poor. The fourth pillar is fasting, fasting is when Muslims do not eat on specific holy days such a Ramadan. The fifth pillar is pilgrimage, a pilgrimage is a religious trip, Muslims travel to Mecca. Family is also important to the Muslims. In Muslim families, the father is the head and must provide food and shelter for the family. A man may also have four wives but a woman can only have one husband. Many Muslim families live with their extended family such as their aunts and uncles. Muslims also believe that women should not be seen by men that are not in her family. Muslim women wear chadors, which are black robes that cover the women. Petroleum is oil found underground. There is much petroleum in the Middle East and many people want it because of its great value. In fact, some countries are wiling to go to war over the petroleum. The OPEC is an organization formed in 1960 that controls the cost of oil and where it will be sold. Afghanistan is a country in the Middle East. Some sports that are popular there are Buzkashi, soccer, cricket, and boxing. Buzkashi is a sport played on horseback that is similar to polo. Cricket was popular in Pakistan and then was brought over to Afghanistan. Boxing is a popular women`s sport and is often played. The Taliban banned many sports in Afghanistan, but now Afghans play these popular games. The Taliban is an Islamic extremest group that has been in charge of most of Afghanistan since 1996. They outlawed education for women, enforced very strict laws, and held public executions for the people that broke those laws. In 2001, the U.S. drove the Taliban out of Afghanistan. Pakistan has also supported the people of Afghanistan by supplying safe havens. Even though the Taliban has been out of power, it is still a problem. The countries of the Middle East and the U.S. are working together and will hopefully stop the Taliban for good.

Ancient Africa
Ancient Egypt was the first civilization in Africa, but there were many other civilizations later on. Scientists believe that humankind first started in Africa. There was a city called Zimbabwe that different people occupied at different times. The city was surrounded by a large wall and inside were decorated buildings. In Africa there are different kinds of landforms and climates. The Sahara is a large desert in Africa, but thousands of years ago it rained there. Cave paintings have been found in the Sahara that are proof of the people that once lived there because of the rain in a dry area. 2,000 years ago, Piankhi, an African king, traveled with his army to Egypt and conquered it. Then, he created the Kingdom of Kush, which is just below Egypt. The people of Kush learned from the Egyptians; they learned about hieroglyphics and how to build pyramids. Even though the people of Kush learned from the Egyptians, they still had different ideas, such as the making of iron tools and the use of elephants. Meroe was the capital of Kush. The people of Meroe traveled on their elephants to trade jewelry, tools, and gold for glass. They were some of the first traders. Egypt and Kush were linked by the Nile and traded together often. Kush was the center of iron that was used for tools and weapons, many other civilizations wanted their iron. The Egyptians traded their manufactured products such as cotton for iron to make tools. The people of Kush also had trade spots along the Red Sea. The Kingdom of Kush began to grow weak when they could not produce enough iron. They needed wood to make fires, so that they could make the iron, but they used up all of their wood. When their supply dwindled, so did their iron trade. As Kush fell, Axum rose. Axum was a civilization south of Kush in a land called Ethiopia. 1,700 years ago, Axum destroyed Meroe. The king that conquered Axum was very proud and carved the story of his victory over Meroe on a stone column. With their competitors out of the way, Axum became a trading city. People sailed to Axum to trade clothing,jewelery, and ivory. There were other powerful civilizations to the west of Axum, Ghana was one of them. Ghana was rich in gold and many people wanted to trade for the gold. The leader of Ghana was originally called ghana because ghana means "king of gold". Traders came to Ghana from the north, but they needed something to trade with, so as they traveled through the Sahara, they would pass salt mines and strap blocks of salt onto their camels. Then, when they arrived at Ghana, they would trade salt for gold.The people of Ghana did not have salt, but it was essential for drying food to keep it from spoiling. Ghana lasted for about 800 years, but it was conquered by the people of Mali from the north. Mali was ruled by a great king named Mansa Musa, under Mansa Musa, Mali became a center of learning. Mansu Musa set out to Egypt in 1324 to trade gold and invite teachers to Timbuktu ( a city in Mali). Mansu Musa made Mali a very educational country and he was an important leader. All of these civilizations in Africa conquered one another, but now some of them are still countries.

The Age of Exploration: Africa
During the 1300s and 1400s explorers traveled to Africa when they heard of its great riches. The Africans were given cloth, copper, iron, jewelery, beads, toys, and alcohol. Then, the Europeans were given gold and ivory. Trade between Africa and Europe started out well, until the Europeans wanted slaves. Europeans started claiming lands in North and South America, and they started plantations. The plantations grew coffee, sugar, fruits, and cotton, but they needed many people to work on them. Europeans started traveling to Africa for slaves. They hired slave catchers that were sailors, or Africans. They would take Africans that were wondering nearby and put them on large ships to be taken to the plantations. Sometimes, the slave merchants would force groups of Africans called slave caravans to walk 1,000 miles to a coastal fort. There, they would wait to be put onto a ship. These slaves ships were horrible to travel in, there was not much room and many Africans ended up dying before they reached land. The slaves were shackled together and crammed into rooms. The Africans were treated extremely poorly during the entire experience, and about 1-2 million people died. Slave trade ruined families and destroyed villages. Slave trade led to racism; some Europeans started thinking that they were better than the African slaves. During the 1800s, populations in Europe were increasing and the Industrial Revolution was starting. Africa was growing more important to European countries because of its resources. Imperialism, which is when one one country controls another country`s economy started happening in Africa. Many countries in Europe ruled regions of Africa. However, they did not care much about the Africans and some villages were forced to live together while others were forced to separate. The Africans fought for independence, but many did not gain freedom until after World War Two. Ghana was the first country to gain its independence on March 6, 1857 and they were led by Kwame Nkrumah who led a group called Self Government NOW. Self Government NOW led boycotts against the Europeans, they refused to buy the European`s goods. Other African countries had to fight for their freedom; Kenya had to fight Great Britain for its independence. Many people died during this, but in December of 1963, Jomo Kenyatta was chosen to be the first leader of Kenya. The countries of Africa were controlled by the Europeans, but they gained independence eventually.

Ancient Egypt
The Nile River is the longest river in the world, it is more that 4,000 miles long. Not only is it huge, it provides water and transportation for the people near it: the Egyptians. 10,000 years ago, people started moving to the Nile River Valley because it provided fertile land in a dry and desert-like area. Every summer, the Nile would flood, leaving fertile soil that was great for growing crops. Farmers would also save the floodwater from the river to later use in their farms. Around 5,000 years ago, the villages around the Nile grew larger and they needed a leader. Menes was a leader of many of the villages and he united them. Egypt grew under his leadership and a capital was built called Memphis. He also built himself a palace. From then on, Egypt`s kings were called pharaohs, which means "great palace". The pharaoh was the most powerful person in Egypt. He made the laws and everyone worked for him, or gave him something. For example, farmers gave some of their food and artists made buildings and statues for the pharaoh. Nobles were the people who ran the government, they were not as powerful as the pharaoh, but they still had power. Artists had less power than nobles and farmers were the least powerful. In other civilizations, women did not have many rights, but in Egypt, women could do all the same things as men. The Egyptians believed in many gods, one of which was Ra. In the morning and evening Egyptians watched the sun rise and set because they believed in the sun god: Ra. The Egyptians based some of their religion off of this idea. They thought that a person died and was reborn in the afterlife like how the sun sets and rises. The Egyptians however, believed that the body needed to be mummified if it was going to travel to the afterlife. They would put chemicals on it, wrap it in cloth, and cover it with tar. Then, the mummy would be placed in a tomb with food, water, clothes, and games for the afterlife. The Ancient Egyptians invented many different things that we have today, and that they had in common with other ancient civilizations, like the Sumerians. They invented the calendar when they realized that the Nile flooded about every 365 days ( the Sumerians also had this). They also invented papyrus, a kind of paper made from plants that grew along the Nile. They would write on the papyrus with hieroglyphics, which was their writing system (the Sumerians also had a writing system). The Ancient Egyptians also created a number system. They would represent each number with a specific amount of symbols. Another Ancient Egyptian invention is the shaduf. A shaduf is a clay pot that is balanced with rocks. The pot would be dipped into the river and then lifted out with a pot full of water. The Ancient Egyptians and Sumerians had a lot of their inventions in common.

Canada
The Vikings were the first Europeans to visit Canada. They reached Newfoundland in about 1000 A.D.. They traveled to Canada in small ships across the Atlantic. Even though the Vikings settled there, they did not stay long. 500 years after that, John Cabot led explorers to claim Newfoundland for the British. In 1534, a French explorer named Jacques Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence River. Henry Hudson was another British explorer who sailed to Canada in 1620; he was probably the most famous of all the explorers of Canada. Hudson explored a big bay in northern Canada, the bay was later named Hudson Bay. Soon after the explorations the Europeans wanted to make colonies in Canada because of its great resources. Fishing boats traveled back to Europe after being filled with the abundant fish of Canada. Even more valuable than fish were furs. The French bought furs from the American Indians and later sold them in Europe. In the early 1600s, the English started to settle in Canada. In 1670, the English created a company called the Hudson`s Bay Company; it controlled the fur trade around the Hudson Bay. The French and the British soon began fighting over land and trade, this led to the French and Indian War, it lasted from 1754 to 1763. The French and Indian War is also called the Seven Years War because it lasted for seven years. In the beginning of the war, the French were winning because they had allied with both the American Indians and the U.S.. Towards the end of the war, William Pitt was chosen as Secretary of State for the British and he started putting more resources into the war. Then, the British started winning. Both the French and the British had help from the American Indians, but the British gained control of Canada in 1763. The British kept control of Canada for about 100 years, however they let the French-Canadians keep their laws, language, and religion. In 1867, Canada won its independence and they elected their own leaders. Canada gained control of British Columbia in 1871 and created the Canadian Pacific Railroad to join Canada and British Columbia. Now, Canada has a British, French, and American Indian population. A program called multiculturalism was started so that the Canadians can share their beliefs and ways of life. However, multiculturalism has made Quebec, a French province, want to secede (leave Canada). The French people of Quebec say that the English speaking people have better jobs and businesses. Quebec voted to stay with Canada for now, but that might change in the future.

Oceania
Oceania is found in the Pacific Ocean. It is made up of thousands of islands that are divided into three groups. The groups are Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia. New Zealand is made of two main islands called North Island and South Island; they are surrounded by smaller islands. New Zealand has a mild climate because it is surrounded by ocean water. The first people to live in New Zealand were the Maori; they came to New Zealand from Polynesia. The Maori were hunters and farmers, they grew sweet potatoes and beans. They also built houses out of reeds. The Maori still live in New Zealand, but they are starting to adapt to the modern world and technology. During the 1700s, Europeans came to New Zealand to trade with the Maori and hunt seals and whales. Later in the 1800s, the traders and hunters started to settle. In 1804, the British officer William Hobson signed a peace treaty with the Maori. Even though the treaty gave the British control over the Maori, the Maori did not want to give up their land. In 1845, the Maori started to fight the British, but in 1872, they surrendered. However, during the early 1900s, both the British and the Maori agreed that the people of New Zealand should govern themselves. New Zealand gained freedom in 1907. Today, many people in New Zealand are fishermen and farmers. New Zealand`s main products are dairy products, lamb, wheat, barley, potatoes, fruits, vegetables, wool, beef, and fish. The main industries in New Zealand are textiles, paper products, mining, tourism, transportation machinery, banking, insurance, food processing, and machinery. New Zealand trades mainly with Australia, China, the U.S., Japan, Singapore, and Germany. New Zealand`s main imports are vehicles, air crafts, petroleum, plastics, and electronics. New Zealand is a wealthy country because of its trade and resources.

Australia is another country in Oceania, Australia means "southern land" because Australia is completely south of the equator. Australia is hot and dry, in fact, one third of it is desert. The dry plains of Australia are called the outback. The first people to live in Australia were the Aborigines, they came to Australia 40,000 years ago. That is why Aborigine means "first known people to live in a place". They hunted and gathered their food, so they traveled around instead of building houses. The Aborigines used a weapon called a boomerang to hunt animals; when it was thrown, it would come back after making a wide arch. The Aborigines had to survive in the deserts, so they learned that water could be found in the roots of bushes. They used tools to survive the harsh climate of Australia. Like the Maori, the Aborigines still live in Australia. In 1606, a Dutch explorer named Willem Jansz found Northern Australia. In 1642, another Dutch explorer named Abel Tasman landed near Australia on an island later named Tasmania. Tasman also reached New Zealand, he named it after Zealand (a place in the Netherlands). Tasman and Jansz did not stay long in Oceania because they thought that there were no good resources and valuable goods. Tasman and Jansz were the first explorers from Europe to see Australia, but more Europeans were coming. About 100 years after Tasman`s journey, Captain James Cook, a British explorer, landed in New Zealand and Australia. He thought that they were good places to settle and farm. In 1788, the first British settlers of Australia came to the country: they were convicts. They were sent to Australia to work for their crimes in isolation. In 1851, gold was found and British colonies began to pop up. Australia broke away from the British in 1901 and became the Commonwealth of Australia. Today, Australia is a very rich nation because of its natural resources. Australia trades mainly with China, the U.S., Japan, Singapore, South Korea, India, and Germany. Australia`s main agricultural resources are wheat, barley, sugarcane, fruits, cattle, sheep, and poultry. Australia`s main industries are mining, transportation equipment, steel, food processing, and chemicals. Some of Australia`s main imports are crude oil, petroleum (and petroleum products), and telecommunication parts. These resources and countries that Australia trades with have industrialized Australia.

The Western Hemisphere
The Western Hemisphere is made up of only two continents: North America and South America. The countries in the Americas trade together. The U.S. trade mainly with Canada, Mexico, Brazil, Columbia, Chile, and Venezuela. The U.S. exports grains, meats, snack foods, fresh fruits, soy beans, fresh vegetables, mineral fuel, plastics, and electrical machinery. The U.S. imports processed food, coffee, some fresh fruits and vegetables, snack food, crude oil, vehicles, and machinery. In 1507, a mapmaker used information from an Italian explorer named Amerigo Vespucci to make a map of South America. He decided to name it America, after Amerigo Vespucci. Other explorers tried to cross the Atlantic Ocean. Christopher Columbus was one of them. He found South America in 1498. In 1469, an Italian sailor named John Cabot was asked by King Henry VII to sail to America. Cabot set sail with 18 men in May, 1497. He landed on Canada in June of 1497. There, he found full forests and rivers full of fish. Canada has a very cold climate, some parts are covered with snow all year long. The west coast is the warmest in the winter due to the warm ocean currents that travel up from the South Pacific, but the southeast is the coldest. Southeastern Canada has very cold winters and short summers, but more than half of Canada lives there. The flat region that surrounds the Hudson Bay is called the Canadian Shield. It is the largest part of Canada and has beautiful lakes, and good resources like gold and lumber; but it is not good land for farming because of the weather. However, the southern part of the Interior Plains is great for farming, but the northern part is too mountainous. The Rocky Mountains start in Canada and travel down in the west of the U.S. The Appalachian Mountains also travel from Canada to the U.S., but they are in the east. The United States also has plains similar to the Interior Plains; they are called the Great Plains and have a warmer climate than the Interior Plains. One thing that the U.S. has that Canada does not have is deserts. Canada is far north, so it is cold, but there are deserts in the U.S. In fact, there is a desert in California called Death Valley. Deserts also cover many states in the Southwest. South of the United States is Central America. More than 12 countries that are islands in the Caribbean or on land make up Central America. These countries have a warm climate and thick rainforests. A country in Central America is Panama. It is very narrow and was chosen to build a canal through. The diggers had to clear land, drain swamps, avoid the sickness carrying mosquitoes, and finally dig through layers of rock and dirt. It is 50 miles long and connects the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. It allows ships to pass through instead of going all the way around South America. South of Central America is South America. Flat plains are in the middle of the continent and mountains are on the west. The Rocky Mountains start in Canada, travel through the U.S., and run down the west of South America, but in South America they are called the Andes. The flat plains are called the Amazon Basin. Most of it is a tropical rain forest and therefor wet. Places in South America near the equator are warm, but near the south tip (closer to the poles) are colder. The Amazon rainforest is very warm and wet; it provides a great climate for plants. The trees grow tall and the plants are abundant. Many different species of snakes, birds, insects, mammals, and frogs inhabit the Amazon. In fact, more than 200 kinds of trees can be found in the Amazon. Today, all of these animals and plants are threatened. People have cleared trees for land to live in and for wood. At this rate, we could lose the Amazon by 2050. Some people have tried to save the rainforests, and if everyone helps out, we could save this amazing habitat. There is an Organization that is dedicated to helping the Amazon, it is called ACTO (Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization). This includes Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, and other countries around the world. ACTO was started in 1978. Its main concerns are sustaining the Amazon and using science to do that. Other concerns are biodiversity and the amount of drinkable water in the Amazon. All of these countries are coming together to help save the Amazon.