Dexter

The land south of the Himalayas is the Indian subcontinent. The Indian subcontinent was once attached to the African continent, but 90 million years ago it broke off Africa and collided with Asia. The ground buckled up from pressure, and that created the Himalayas. The first civilization was around the Indus River. There is very fertile land there so that is why people went there. The climate in India is mostly hot and humid. The Himalayas block the cold and dry winds from the north. Many Indians work in agriculture. They used to do subsistence farming, which means they just grow crops for themselves. The Green Revolution was an increase in agricultural production. India suffers from poverty and high population growth. Nearly half of the worlds poor people live in South Asia. If the world had 100 people in it 17 would live in India.
 * __//Dexter//__**
 * __India Geography__**

__**India Early History**__ The Harappans were a nation of wealthy farmers, craftspeople, and traders. The Harappans had clay walled cities and sewage systems so they could transport water into and out of homes five thousand years ago. They were also one of the first people to build sailing ships. Harappan farmers grew melons, barley, wheat, and dates. The cotton they grew was used to make clothing. Excess crops where sailed off on ships to trade with Mesopotamia. Zebus (a type of cattle), sheep, and goats were also herded by the Harappans and the Arabian Sea was used to catch fish. The Harappans learned from other civilizations they traded with. They learned how to make ards, which are simple plows, from the Mesopotamians. Later India began growing rice because of influence from Chinese traders. After that rice became an important crop for farmers. Asoka, the grandson of former leader Chandragupta, ruled the largest empire in Ancient Indian history. He was know for his devotion to nonviolence and charity based on the Buddhist religion. Inscribed on large stone pillars throughout the empire he proclaimed "the law of Righteousness." One of the inscriptions said his government officials must work for the happiness and benefit of the people in the empire. However, after Asoka's death in 232 B.C. the empire began to decline. Then, by the late fifth century a series of invasions from a ferocious Central Asian warriors called the White Huns weakened the Gupta rule, hence the end of the golden age. There where large irrigation systems in Ancient India which is quite remarkable for their time. They were the first civilization to develop precise measurement and weighing equipment. Boats and carts were used for trade with other civilizations.

__**The Aryans in India**__ Some people think the Aryans conquered the Harappans. The Aryans had a caste system for peoples places in society. The cast you are in depends on your parents and you cannot move up or down from the cast you were born in. Some people were the dasas, or the untouchables. The untouchables were the lowest level in society. You had to marry in your caste, eat food cooked by people in your caste, and have jobs that suit your cast. If you married outside your caste you could be killed. Young boys in the brahman caste (the highest social cast) went to school so they could learn the sacred Vedas (holy books). Girls had no formal education. Aryan women were allowed to own property until about 500 B.C. when the brahmans believed that women should be strictly controlled. A woman was also not allowed to chose her husband and a husband was chosen for her by her parents. According to the ancient text known as Rigveda the cast system came from when Brahma created the universe. Priests and teachers came from his mouth, rulers and warriors came from his arms, merchants and traders came from his thighs, and workers and peasants came from his feet. The Vedas are were handed down by the brahmans. The Vedas were handed down orally through the generations.



__**Ancient Indian Pastimes and Games**__

There were some games in Ancient India that took athleticism such as archery and racket ball. Racket ball is similar to modern day lacrosse. Also, in Ancient India there was gambling. People gambled on certain athletic activities. However, a popular game to bet on was Bowl and Dice. Bowl and Dice was played in big gaming houses. Archery was very popular in Ancient India and had a big part of their festivals. There is a target made from a certain type of grass and the target is circular and is put on a bamboo pole. There is a notch at the base of the pole, and people try to get points by hitting above the notch. Hinam Turnam is a traditional game where somebody is the hunter and somebody else is the prey. The hunter tries to hunt down the prey. Some local people call it the struggle between life and death.

__**Important Government Officials in Ancient India**__

The kings powers were limited, because when the king makes important decisions he has to consult the Council of Ministers first. The Council of Ministers can criticize or overrule the king if they do not agree with his policies. During Mauryan times, the kingdom was made up of several large provinces, and each province was governed by a member of the royal family. The provinces were divided into districts. The districts were administered by deputies. The deputies were chosen by the provincial governor. The districts were then divided into cities, villages, and small towns. There were thousands of other major and minor officials. There were civil servants who collected taxes, tolls, supervised construction of certain things, counted population, regulated water use, and measured land. There were also spies that looked over the people to scout any uprisings or rebellions. Panas were silver coins, and the spy would get up to 1,000 panas. The government also gave money to families of civil servants or spies who had died on the the job or had been injured. The army of Maurya had more than 600,000 men. Brahmins could become generals and Kshatriyas had leadership posts because they had a military education so that made them skillful soldiers. The lower castes usually became lower ranking foot soldiers.


 * __Facts About India__**

Monsoons are seasonal winds that bring 80% of annual rainfall in India. Monsoons blow from cold to warm regions. Bindi is a dot traditionally worn on a married Hindu woman's forehead. The Bindi is worn because it is believed to protect the women and is a symbol of feminine pride. The Bindi is traditionally made from paste of colored sandalwood. New Delhi is India's capital city, and is also the third largest city. One tourist attraction in Delhi is the Lodhi Gardens. These gardens are the oldest gardens in Delhi, and date back to the 16th century. In central Delhi is the Parliament House. States Men and Law Makers work in the Parliament House. Goa is one of the smallest states in India but is a popular place for tourists. Goa has many carnivals and beaches. Another tourist attraction is Agra. Agra is located on the banks of the river Yamuna. Agra is a popular tourist attraction, because it is home to the seventh wonder of the world the Taj Mahal. Bandhavgarh has an area of 168 square miles and is a national park. This national park is populated with mostly tigers and is also known as white tiger country.

__**Indian Soccer Team**__



India's soccer team are currently ranked 167 by FIFA. The mens soccer coach is currently Wim Koevermans. The British brought soccer to India and during the British empire a number of soccer clubs were created. In 1872 the first soccer club in India was founded they were called Callcuta FC. The India Football Association (IFA) was founded in 1893. India's oldest soccer tournament, which is the third oldest in the world, is called the Durand Cup. The first recorded Indian victory of any of their tournaments was in 1911, when Mohun Bagan Club won the IFA Shield Trophy. The other tournaments had been won by British clubs in India.

__**The Hindu Trinity**__

The Hindu trinity is the three gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Brahma is the creator, Vishnu is the preserver, and Shiva is the destroyer. The gods in the Hindu trinity have goddess forms as well. For Shiva there is Parvati the goddess of power, destruction, and transformation, for Vishnu there is Lakshmi the goddess of love, beauty, and delight, and for Brahma is Saraswati the goddess of knowledge.

__**Population in India**__

Today India has about 1.2 billion people. There are also population problems in the rest of South Asia. For instance, in Afghanistan on average each woman can expect to have almost seven children. In India there are too many people and not enough resources for the rising population. The Ganges River is one of the most heavily polluted rivers in the world. Despite that fact, people still bathe, wash their clothes, and drink from it. Air pollution is also a major problem in India. Bangalore's air pollution from 2002 to 2010 increased 34%. India's air pollution has increased over the past decade faster and more than China's. Because the air is polluted, there is less oxygen in the air. The smog has made many people sick.







__**India's Voting System**__

In India, the voters elect the State Assemblies and the House of the People. The State Assemblies then elect the Council of States. The prime minister is drawn from the majority part out of the Parliament. The House of the People, the Council of the States, and the State Assemblies all elect the president. The current president of India is Shri Pranab Mukherjee. The current prime minister of India is Manmohan Singh. Rajya Sabha is currently in the Council of States and Lok Sabha is currently in the House of the People.

__**History Take-Home Quiz**__

__**Mesopotamia**__

Mesopotamia was one of the first civilizations and is in present day Iraq. The first civilizations were built around the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers because there was arable land there. Because of that it is now called the Fertile Crescent. The Sumerians were the first civilization in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians developed a written language which is essential in a civilization. When the Babylonians conquered the Sumerians they used cuneiform as their written language. The Babylonians conquered the Sumerians under Hammurabi. Hammurabi developed a set of laws to help rule his nation. One of the most important ideas in Hammurabi's laws was that strong men should not harm weak men. The Hebrews also lived in Mesopotamia. A Hebrew leader named Abraham led the Hebrews to into canaan. The Hebrews lived in canaan for many years. Then, they went through a drought and their crops couldn't grow so they went to Egypt. In Egypt, however, they were turned into slaves. Moses, a great Hebrew leader, led them out of Egypt and back to canaan. The Hebrews also made a set of laws called the Ten Commandments. The Ten Commandments state that you must not lie, steal, cheat, or kill one another. The Mesopotamians had very advanced math for their time. The Mesopotamians had formulas for figuring out circumference and diameter. The Mesopotamians may even have discovered pi.

__**The Middle Ages**__

The Middle Ages were after the fall of Rome. The Roman Empire lasted for over a thousand years but over time the empire began to grow weak. Some of the emperors were cruel and dishonest and that led to corruption. So, in A.D. 476 warriors captured Rome but all of Rome's culture was not lost. In fact, a lot of things in the Middle Ages were based off of things from Rome or Greece. Many leaders fought one another for control over land. The Middle Ages became chaotic and did not live up to greatness of the Greek or Roman Empires. Trade began to fade away because warriors from the north destroyed crops and robbed homes and farms. A system called feudalism brought order. Feudalism was a type of government. In Feudalism the stronger and more powerful protected the weaker people. The King gave land to the nobles so in return the nobles helped protect the king. Nobles who fought for their king were called knights. There were also serfs. A serf farmed the land, payed rent, and payed taxes to the nobles. In return, the nobles protected them. Serfs were not allowed to leave the manor without permission. Most people lived in manors in the Middle Ages. A manor had to provide everything the people living inside it needed since they were isolated from everyone else and had no trade. Manors often had a moat to protect them. In the Middle Ages people were poorly educated and the only thing that kept education alive was the church. Most manors had a Roman Catholic Church and they educated people. Religious men and women called monks and nuns copied hundreds of books by hand. The Middle Ages are thought of as the dark ages because of what went on then.

__**The Renaissance**__

After the crusades, wars over the holy land of Jerusalem, a period called the Renaissance took place. Renaissance means rebirth in French and it is certainly a fitting word. The Renaissance was when the arts, science, and math became more widely known. Michelangelo was a famous artist during the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci was another well-known artist. There were many other artists and scientists. Being a serf didn't matter because you could learn and it would matter what you thought not your place in society. The Roman Catholic Church was also reformed during this period. A man named Martin Luther thought some things about the Roman Catholic Church was wrong, Luther protested and the church made reforms. The invention of the printing press also helped more people learn how to read. During the Renaissance important scientist like Galileo and Newton made very important discoveries. It was important to be both an artist and a scientist during this time period. For example Leonardo da Vinci used his knowledge of astronomy to help his artwork.

__**The Middle East**__

The Middle East is between the three continents, Africa, Europe, and Asia. The Middle East borders the Mediterranean Sea. Saudi Arabia is the biggest country in the Middle East. The ancient Arabs were nomads. They moved from place to place in search of food and water. There are still nomads in this area today. Most people in the Middle East today follow the religion of Islam. Islam began in the Middle Eat as well as Judaism and Christianity which also originated in the Middle East. Muhammed lived in Meccca in the early 600s. Muhammed was the creator of the Islam religion. In the year 610 Muhammed began to teach people of the Islam religion. Islam means surrender to god. People who believe in Islam are called Muslims. Muhammed died in 632 but Muslim leaders continued to spread the religion. The Middle East is called the land of black gold so there are many poor and many rich countries there. Yemen is one of the poorest countries in the world but the United Arab Emerites are on of the richest countries in the world. Most Islamic countries in the Middle East are ruled my rulers who have complete power. However, Yemen, Turkey, and Israel are all republics.

__**Ancient**__ __**Egypt**__

Over 10,000 years ago people began to move around the Nile River. The Nile River is the longest river in the world and is more than 4,000 miles long. Later, people began to settle there because the land around the Nile River is fertile. The people needed water from the Nile because Egypt does not get much rainfall. The Nile flooded every summer and the Egyptians trapped that water to use it. After a while they began to live together in small villages. About 5,000 years ago the first pharaoh, Menes, unified the small villages under his rule. Menes built himself a capital city called Memphis. He also built a great palace and that is why the pharaoh is called the pharaoh which means great palace. According to the pharaohs laws, everyone worked for the pharaoh in some way. Farmers had to give some of their food to the pharaoh. The Egyptians were polytheistic and one of their most important gods was Ra, the sun god. Egyptians also developed mummification. That is a process that preserves their bodies. They put chemicals on their bodies and then wrapped them in long strips of cloth. Some important people were put in tombs, that is the purpose of the pyramids. There are also games and jewels placed by their tomb for the afterlife. They also developed a written language called heiroglyphics. The Egyptians believed human life was like the sun. A person was born when the sun rose and a person died. The Egyptians believed in reincarnation. Wall paintings were also put in a persons tomb. The wall paintings showed the person doing things that they enjoyed in life. Pharaohs had the largest tombs built for them. They were the pyramids. The largest pyramid was called the great pyramid. The great pyramid was built over 4,500 years ago. It is as tall as a 45 story building. About 100,000 people worked 20 years to build this. They used about two million blocks of stone in the great pyramid and each block weighed two and a half tons. The theory is that Ancient Egyptians used the ramp, the wedge, and the lever. While the pharaohs had fancy burials ordinary people did not get as good treatment. When an ordinary person dies, their relatives would wrap them in cloth then bury them in the desert.

__**Kush**__

Over 2,000 years ago an African king named Piankhi traveled down the Nile and defeated Egypt with his army. The kingdom of Kush was the most important African civilization for hundreds of years after. Kush was located south of Egypt and because of that Kush learned many things from the Egyptians. The people of Kush learned how to write Egyptian hieroglyphics and how to build pyramids. However, the pyramids of Kush were different from the pyramids of Egypt. The capital of Kush was a city named Meroe. A visitor to Meroe was amazed at how well they made iron tools and how elephants roamed the streets freely. Elephants carried iron tools and gold to faraway places to trade for jewelry and rare glass. People traveled great distances on elephants. In fact, trade was so important to Kush they made trade agreements with Egypt to use the Nile River to get to the Mediterranean.


 * __Oceania__**

Oceania is made up of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia. Some of these islands were formed by volcanoes thousands of years ago.

__**Australia**__

Australia means the southern land and the entire continent lies south of the equator. Australia is very dry and about one third of the continent is desert. Australia's hot, dry plains are called the outback. The Aborigines were the first known people to live in Australia. They probably came from the South Pacific islands about 40,000 years ago. The word aborigine means the first known people to live in a place. Aborigines used stone axes, spears, and boomerangs. Aborigines did not stay in one place and did not build farms or houses. Australia was first discovered by Dutch explorers. The first British settlers to go to Australia were convicts. Australia has many natural resources and because of that they are a very rich country. Australian cities are also very modern because of there natural resources. In Australia because of the more modern cities the indigenous people have had to adapt. In fact there is a life expectancy gap between indigenous people and non indigenous people.


 * __Africa__**

In the 1300s and 1400s the people of Europe heard stories abut Africa and the resources in Africa. The explorers and traders were the ones who brought back the news of Africa. after people talked about Africa, many people went there so they could get rich. at first Europeans only wanted goods so they could trade with the people of Asia. They wanted things such a gold ad ivory. In the late 1400s European settled in North and South America and they built large plantations. They grew sugar cane, fruits, cotton and many other things so they needed many people to work there. Soon Europeans began traveling to Africa for slaves. Slave catchers were hired to obtain the Africans and sometimes slave catchers were other Africans payed to hide and catch people who wandered near by. There were horrible conditions in the journey back to North America and South America and one in six Africans died on the journey back. The slave trade led to racism because many Europeans began to think they were better the Africans. Europeans began to follow the policy of imperialism. Imperialism is the control of the economy and government of one country by another. The Europeans did not treat the Africans well. Some African countries requested independence and one example of that is that the people of Ghana led boycotts. In 1546 a man by the name of Diego de Campo led a group of 7,000 runaway slaves on an island. When the Spanish attacked the maroons they were defeated. However, after a while de Campo was captured and he offered to fight the maroons he once led. The Spanish let him and he defeated them. This is just one of many examples of how the slave trade caused betrayal.

__**Canada**__

Canada is the second largest country in the world. Canada has many tall mountains. The vikings were the first Europeans in Canada. They traveled across the Atlantic in small, swift sailing ships. The vikings probably reached the area we call Newfoundland at about A.D. 1000. The vikings settled but they did not stay in Canada long. Five hundred years came and went before Europeans came to Canada again. In 1497 John Cabot claimed Newfoundland for England. He was followed by a few French explorers. In 1534 Jacques Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence river. Henry Hudson explored a giant bay in 1610 and the bay was later called the Hudson Bay. There were colonies created in Canada because of the resources. Some of these resources include fish and fur. In the 1600s Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec. However with the French and the British side by side it wasn't long before they began to fight. Both the French and the English wanted the trade and the land. From 1754 to 1763 the British and the French fought in the French and Indian War. Both sides fought with the help of various Indian American tribes. In 1763 Great Britain won the war and gained control of Canada. During British rule however the French Canadians were able to keep their language, culture, and religion. In 1867, Canada won the right to self-government. The Canadian government started a program called multiculturalism. Some people in Quebec want to secede from Canada and become a separate nation. Most people in Quebec speak French and people say there are too many businesses that have English speaking owners so the French speaking people don't get enough good jobs. In Canada's northern areas there is a lot of gold, oil, and silver. In 1733 the British launched a 6 pence tax on a gallon of molasses in the Caribbean. This is an example of a strategy to win a war.


 * __Geography and Climate of the Western Hemisphere__**

In 1507 the word America was first used on a map of South America. The word comes from Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci. The land had no name so the map maker decided to name it after Amerigo Vespucci. In 1496 King Henry VII of England sent Italian sailor John Cabot to sail to America. He set sail on a small ship called Matthew in May 1497. Cabot may have had some trouble if he had come to Canada in the winter because it gets cold in the winter. The west coast of Canada is warmest during the winter because of a warm current coming up from the south. John Cabot found many natural resources including fish, arable land, and skins. The Canadian Shield is the largest part of Canada. This is a flat region that borders the Hudson Bay. The weather is not good for farming but there are resources like gold and lumber found there. Glaciers carved valleys into mountains and the valleys became long, narrow bays called fjords. The United States most northern state, Alaska, has weather similar to Canada's. The U.S. has climates Canada doesn't have despite many similarities. The islands of Hawaii have a tropical climate. Also a desert in California gets so hot it is called Death Valley. There is also Mexico and Central America and they have very warm climates. Panama has a canal called the Panama Canal that was built to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Because of the Panama Canal trading ships can shorten their trip by almost 8,000 miles. The canal is over 50 miles long. However there was a large price to pay and the workers had to drain swamps, clear land, and stay away from giant swarms of mosquitoes that carried deadly sicknesses. The mosquitoes lay their eggs in swaps. Many workers died before a solution was found. In South America countries in the south are very cold and countries in the north are warm because they are near the equator. The Amazon Basin is large bowl-like area where most of the flat land is located in South America. Most of the Amazon Basin is covered with tropical rainforest. The Amazon rain forest is the largest and oldest rain forest in the world. The climate is warm and wet and the trees grow very tall. the Amazon rain forest covers one third of South America. There are many plants in the rain forest that haven't been identified. Humans have destroyed the majority of the rainforest and people are concerned the rainforest in Brazil could be entirely gone by 2050. Many things endanger animals and plant in the rainforest today. Some of these things are illegal logging, oil exploration, irresponsible ranching practices, industrial development, pesticides, diseases, and mining.