Lucy

Lucy Blake __ India __ ** India's Geography: ** India's geography is ringed by mountains. The most important range is the Himalayas, which are the highest mountains on Earth. Snow melts from the mountain peaks and creates water that flows into the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers. In the center of India is the Deccan Plateau. India's climate is subtropical and very humid. The average temperature is 80 degrees Fahrenheit. The Himalayas protect all of India from the harsh weather that blows across China off the Pacific Ocean. The monsoon season brings large amounts of rain and flooding. Many people in India engage in substance farming, which means they only grow enough food to feed themselves. Other industries in India include hydroelectric power, mining, and natural gas and oil production. India has a serious problem of overpopulation and poverty. Many people who inhabit the cities live in slums. 

** Indus Valley Civilizations: ** In 2600 B.C., the two civilizations of the Indus River Valley were started in what is now present-day Pakistan. The first of the two, established by the Harappans, was a wealthy nation made of farmers, craftspeople, and traders. These people constructed cities out of clay bricks. These formed walls and buildings that were highly advanced for their time. The latter of the two civilizations was made of a tribe of warrior people called the Aryans. The Aryans were nomads who traveled throughout what is now central Asia. The Indus River was a source of drinking water, transportation, and a major trade route for both civilizations. Their economies depended greatly on it. Not only did the Harappans and the Aryans travel on the river, but they also used elephants, camels, and bulls to transport goods. Traders often sold ivory, cotton cloth, lapis lazuli, ceramic jewelry, gold, dried fish, and shells. Later on, when the two civilizations had been conquered, a new form of payment was invented. This payment was a silver bar that was considered to be a "coin". **Life of the Aryans:** The Aryan people lived in collections called ganas. These ganas were ruled by a raja or king, that served as the chief of the warriors. The houses that the Aryans lived in were small and made of mud, straw, and wood. These single roomed homes housed an entire family. As historians look back at the history of the gana towns, they are beginning to believe that families of rulers or nobles may have had larger homes with many rooms in them. One of the most important elements in the Aryan household was the yagna or hearth. This early appliance was used to cook meals. Aryan dishes used ingredients such as mutton, goat, wheat, rice, barley, vegetables, and fruit. They also used butter and milk from their goats and cows. Many spices including turmeric, black pepper, cardamom, and mustard were used to add flavor. The Aryans had different social castes. These separated the highest ranks and the lowest ranks of society. The order of ranks from highest to lowest is: Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisya, Sudras, and the Dasas or untouchables. The untouchables were not allowed to be touched by anyone of a higher caste. Also, if any caste was to marry, they had to wed someone in their own caste. One theory on the beginning of the caste system was that the Aryans were trying to control their populations.

**Words and Writing:** The Harapans were the first known civilization to have a form of writing. This writing was carved into stones and pottery. It sometimes formed a scene that included pictures of animals. There were only 300 different symbols. The small number of symbols was due to the difficulty of carving seals on pottery. Each symbol stands for an entire word. This writing made up a language that is still used in modern day southern India. The Harappans invented musical instruments made out of copper, bronze, lead, and tin. They also made carts and boats for transportation of goods such as rice, spices, vegetables, grain, and meats. The Harappans typically wore cotton clothing. Cotton was an abundant crop grown in the Indus River Valley. Women wore long colorful dresses called saris that they would wrap around themselves. This type of attire was first introduced to the Indus River Valley civilizations in the Vedas, the first novels of ancient India. The material of one's sari was an indication of one's caste. For example, only the people of the highest caste could afford saris made of silk from China. Men also wore cotton cloth, but instead of saris they wore dhoti. These dhoti were less colorful and served as a kind of pants for the average working man. ==

People of the Indus River Valley worshipped more than 1,000 gods and goddesses. Here is a list of some of the major ones:
 * Hindu Gods:**

Brama Vishnu media type="youtube" key="swC1kOHQGu8" height="251" width="448" align="right" Shiva Parvati Lakshimi Sarasvati Rama Krishna Ganesh Indra Surya Agni Varuna Yama Hanuman

In ancient India, the government was a bureaucracy. It was governed by royal families and four other important groups, or roles, in the society. The Kshatriyas were an important part of the second caste's government. They were in charge of protecting others in their society, and gave gifts to the Brahmans. The Council of Minsters played another important role. The citizens in this council were responsible for setting government policies. This Council was a rather small group, but it was very influential. The third role in the government was the raja's spies. These spies were used to monitor individuals who may have wanted to betray or murder the raja. The fourth role was the deputies whose job was to guard the streets and arrest criminals.
 * Government Leaders and Warriors:**

Armies were also needed in these societies. These were led by generals who were usually Brahmans. Some battle weapons that are still used today, like tanks and guns are modeled after elephants, chariots, and bows and arrows.

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 * __FUN FACTS!__**
 * India's flag consists of three main colors: orange, white and green. In the center of the middle white band is a blue chakara. A chakara is a 24-spoked wheel. The Indian flag has many meanings like courage, peace, honesty, truth, and loyalty.
 * A Tandoor is a special kind of clay oven used to cook Indian breads, sauces and meats. Tandoori is a traditional cooking style from ancient India.
 * Chapati is an Indian flatbread that is made out of ground corn and cooked in the tandoor.
 * A very old tandoor recipe is Tandoori Chicken. This was served at large feasts for rajas and queens in the time of the Mughals. Tandoori Chicken was considered a delicacy in the past, but now it is a common dish served in Indian cuisine.

Mahatma Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869. Many call him the father of the (Indian) Nation. He helped the untouchables gain their freedom and rights from the British. His idea of fighting for rights was much differed from others before him. Gandhi believed in and practiced non-violence. This method was very effective. The British surrendered and granted the untouchables their freedom. Sadly, this occured after Gandhi was assassinated on January 30, 1946. Today, people still change their last names to Gandhi to show a sign of respect for him and what he accomplished.
 * __Mahatma Gandhi__:**

Water pollution of the Ganges River is increasing on a daily basis. Almost 70% of the surface water in the river is polluted. This pollution is caused by chemicals from riverside factories and gas burned from vehicles in the cities. The pollution also effects the way that people live. It is not safe for people to drink, bathe in, or fish from the water. Some religious people believe that the river has healing powers, so they use the river regardless. This is also the cause of some water born illnesses. There are no laws to protect the citizens. The best way to stop pollution is to penalize the factories who dump into the river and to use less oil and gasoline whenever possible.
 * __Pollution of the Ganges:__**

India's voting system consists of many different parts. It begins with the voters, who are adult citizens of India. Both men and women are eligible to vote. They vote for the House of People, the Council of States, and the State Assemblies. These people, in turn, elect the Prime Minister and President. The current Prime Minister is Mohammad Hamid Ansariand. The current President is Pranab Mukherjee. His Vice President is Mohammad Hamid Ansari Some other important elected officials are:
 * __India's Voting System:__**

the Minister of Agriculture - Sharad Pawar the Minister of Drinking Water & Sanitation - Jairam Ramesh the Minister of Chemicals & Fertilizers - M. K. Alagiri the Minister of Culture - Kumari Selja

__The Fertile Crescent__ The three main civilizations that made up the Crescent were Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Babylon. The Mesopotamians were the people who settled in what is modern day Iraq. They used fertile lands on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to grow crops. All of the Fertile Crescent civilizations started around Mesopotamia. Sumer was one of the larger civilizations that was started from Mesopotamia. The Sumerians developed a way of keeping track of what they bought and sold. This system of writing was called cuneiform. Finally, Babylon was started by a group of people moving into Mesopotamia. The Babylonians were strong warrior people who conquered many other civilizations. __Ancient Egypt__ The Ancient Egyptians had a life centered around the Nile River. Every year during the wet season, the Nile flooded. This brought up fertile soil from the river bed and watered the Egyptians' crops. In the more arid parts of Egypt, workers built pyramids. Pyramids are large, triangular-shaped structures that were used as tombs for the great pharaohs. The style of this architecture spread to Europe and Asia as well. The Egyptian pyramids were built as tombs for their pharaohs, or kings. When a Pharaoh died, he was buried in a tomb containing games, jewels, money, and his other favorite objects. These items were meant to be used in the afterlife. If the pharoah had beloved pets, they would be mummified and entombed along with him. Theodore M. Davis and Howard Carter were the two archeologists who discovered King Tut's (Tutankhamen's) tomb. King Tutankhamen is a famous figure in Egyptian history. He was known as the "boy king" and died at the age of 18. His tomb is one of the few not destroyed by grave robbers. __Ancient Africa/ Modern Day Africa__ Though Egypt was the first civilization in Africa, many others arose around it. Ancient Africa was separated from the rest of the world by the Sahara Desert. The Sahara is the largest and hottest desert in the world. Many people lived in parts of Africa that were south of these arid sands in thick rainforests and on grassy plains. This landscape is still found in Africa today. Some scientists believe that Africa is the birthplace of humanity. Most cities built in Africa were surrounded by walls that served as protection from animals and invaders. This idea of the fortified city spread to other civilizations like China and Harappa. The ancient Africans also shared their resources and religion with other cultures. As an example, iron is still traded and Christianity continues to be shared with other cultures around the globe today. The way of life on this continent has changed over the years. From the late 1400s through 1870, the African slave trade took place. Europeans started to grow crops, their most important resources, on large farms called plantations. It was hard work and there were not enough European workers to maintain the fields. The Europeans sailed over to Africa to catch the native people. When they were finished collecting slaves, they would put them on ships and sail them back to Europe. Most of the African people who were captured had families that were left behind. One out of every six slaves died from suffocation or dysentary due to overcrowding in the hold of the ship during the long journey. When these slaves arrived in Europe and America, they were auctioned off to their new owners. The life on a plantation was very tough. Every day, slaves would work in the blazing hot sun without any breaks. After many years, slavery ended around the time of the Civil War in America. Slaves were granted their freedom at last. __Oceania__ Oceania is a group of thousands of islands in the South Pacific. The two main islands are Australia and New Zealand. Many things have changed on these two islands since they were first settled. The first, Australia, was first settled by a tribe called the Aborigines. The Aborigines lived in Australia over 40,000 years ago. The people in this tribe were known to stay in one place that had a good source of food. When they hunted, they used boomerangs, which were curved pieces of wood or bone. Boomerangs were a very important tool to the Aborigines. They did not develop bows or arrows like hunters did in other countries, because this weapon was traditional and suited their needs. Even today, the boomerang is still in use, but for recreational purposes. In the late 1700s, the British traveled to Australia. The first British people to settle on the island were convicts who were sent over to work. In the year 1851, gold was discovered, and more people came to settle in Australia. The second main island is New Zealand. The first tribe to live on this island was the Maori. Unlike the Aborigines, the Maori people were nomadic. They constantly moved to other locations on the island to find new resources. This tribe not only hunted, but also grew crops. These included sweet potatoes and beans. The Maori people built their temporary houses out of grass and reeds. In 1642, a Dutch explorer named Abel Tasman journeyed to New Zealand. He believed that all of the plants on the island were useless and could not be valuable for trading. Years later, more settlers arrived from Europe. Soon the British came and tried to conquer the Maori people, but in 1907, New Zealand became its own nation. Today, the Aborigine and the Maori tribes still live on these two islands and their traditional cultures thrive. __The Middle East__ The Middle East is made up of many small parts of three main continents. Africa, Asia, and Europe make up the Middle East. The first people to live in Saudi Arabia were nomads. These Arabic nomads traveled and explored the Middle East for food and water. As more people began to settle in this area, studying Islam became widespread. Islam was created by a man named Muhammad. This religion started in the early 600s in Mecca. The word Islam means "surrender to God." This religion has five pillars that every Muslim has to live by. The names of these pillars are Shahadah, Salaah, Zakaat, Saum, and Hajj. The first is faith. **Faith** is very important because every Muslim person must state that he or she worships only one god. The next is **prayer**. In this religion, you must pray five times a day. The third is alms. **Alms** or money must be given to the poor by higher class Muslims. The fourth pillar is **fasting.** In the month of the Muslim calendar called Ramadan, Muslims fast, which means they do not eat or drink from dawn to dusk. The fifth and final pillar is **pilgrimage.** A pilgrimage is a journey to Mecca that every Muslim must take at least once in his or her life. Women in an Islamic community do not have the same freedoms as men. Everywhere that women go in public, they have to wear a special black robe called a chador that covers their entire body. Only their eyes can be seen. According to Islamic law, a man can have up to four wives, but a woman can only have one husband. __Canada__ Canada is a country of high elevation, as it is home to many large mountains. Explorers saw these mountains when they first traveled here. The first people to explore and settle in Canada were the European Vikings. They traveled in small ships around 1000 A.D. About 500 years later, a European explorer named John Cabot traveled to Canada. He was followed by many Frenchmen, including Jacques Cartier. Cartier found a new route to Canada through the St. Lawrence River in 1534. Finally, in 1610, Henry Hudson traveled from England to the body of water in northern Canada that is now called the Hudson Bay. All of these famous explorers went to this country filled with wilderness because they were searching for a shorter route to Asia where clothing and spices could be found. A few years after the various explorers landed in Canada, people from their home countries came to settle there. Since they were surrounded by forests, these settlers made towns out of log cabins and hunted in the woods around them. Around the mid 1600s, fur trade became very popular in Canada. At this same time, the British and the French were fighting over Canada. In the year 1754, a war started between the two countries that came to be known as the French and Indian War. The British eventually won the war in 1763, and with it the Canadian territories, but even to this day, people in the province of Quebec still speak French. __The Western Hemisphere__ There are only two continents located in the Western Hemisphere. They are North and South America. The name America comes from the Italian explorer, Amerigo Vespucci, who traveled to both of these continents. South America was the first to be named in 1507, when a mapmaker saw that this land had no name. Many other explorers came to these lands after Vespucci, like Christopher Columbus and John Cabot. Although these travelers did not find gold, they did find lush pine forests and rivers full of fish. The two largest countries of North America are Canada and the United States. The U.S. is home to many different types of land forms. Canyons, plains, deserts, and forests were first seen by settlers more than 500 years ago. The plains are a very important part of the U.S., for they bear most of the country's crops. Many are exported to China, Europe, and Africa. These crops include corn, wheat, produce, and meat. If you travel down to South America, you will find not only rain forests and scorching deserts, but also mountains. The Andes mountain range stretches along the western border. Many of these mountains are volcanic, and add to the heat of this continent that sits close to the equator.

__The Middle Ages__ The Middle Ages was the time period that came between the fall of Rome in A.D. 476 and A.D. 1500. Life during this this time was very difficult. Countless leaders roamed through Europe trying to strengthen their own power. They destroyed farmland along the countryside, so there was no place for the common people to grow crops. After many years of terror, an organized system of government called Feudalism was finally created. Feudalism was not only a governing system, but also a way of life. It was required by law that a person of higher power must protect a person with less power. This is similar to the ways of Confucius, for all people had respect for one another, even though they were from different classes. Some of the higher classes in Feudalism were the kings and nobles. The lowest class was the serfs, or common people. The process of how people lived was simple: The kings lent parts of their land or manors to the nobles. In return, the nobles gave the king's castle protection. The serfs also stayed on the king's manors, but they would pay rent instead of serving as guards. Later on in the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church became very important for one reason. It taught people how to read and write. At that time, not many people knew how to read other than monks and nuns, so this was a very important skill for the masses to learn. As Catholicism spread throughout Europe, many Islamic people became angry and took over the holy city of Jerusalem. This made the Christians very displeased, so they set out on long journeys called crusades to recapture their holy city and conquered other cities as well. One example of a city that was captured and recaptured many times is Byzantium/Constantinople/Instanbul. After many tough battles, the Christians finally recaptured Jerusalem in 1099. One hundred years later, the Muslims won it back.

__Early Modern Europe__ After the time of the crusades, there was the Renaissance. The word Renaissance is French for "rebirth," and in fact, this time period was filled with new culture and art. Many well-known painters like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo produced famous masterpieces in this period. As towns grew and citizens paid taxes, they began to realize that social classes were no longer as important as what an individual could contribute. When the people of the Renaissance became unified and equal, more inventions were produced. Around 1450, the printing press was invented. This machine made it possible to copy posters and books more easily than by hand, and ideas spread more quickly. In the late fifteenth century, the printing press was in great demand and through trade, it made its way into England, Spain, France, and Germany. Around the same time, the Industrial Revolution began. There was great need for cloth in the European nations. Many textile factories were built in England to supply the demand. These factories also created jobs for the unemployed. In merely 100 years, Europe went through phenomenal changes in where the population lived and how they worked.